The French Revolution
The Classical Period
Jean-Pierre Houël, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
France was now completely out of money. They had lost most of their colonies around the world and still had huge debts from the War of Austrian Succession, the Seven Years' War, and the American Revolution. On top of this, the monarchy and aristocracy lived lavish, extravagant (one might say "baroque") lifestyles while being exempt from almost all taxes. Facing bankruptcy, King Louis XVI was forced to call the Estates General in 1789. Similar to an early British parliament, this was a meeting of representatives from France's three social classes: the First Estate (the clergy), Second Estate (the aristocracy), and Third Estate (the common people but pronounced "wealthy property owners.") Each estate could present a list of demands, concerns, and requests, and in exchange, could consent to new taxes.
The Third Estate quickly realized this wasn't going anywhere, because any request that the tax burden be spread out among the three estates would be voted down 2-to-1 by the First and Second Estates. The Third Estate then demanded double representation, since they represented over 90% of the country's population, but this was also voted down 2-to-1. Frustrated, the Third Estate delegates walked out of the Estates General and reconvened at a local tennis court, where they declared themselves the true representatives of the whole country, calling themselves the "National Assembly." They pledged what became called the Tennis Court Oath, vowing not to leave until France transitioned from a nation of subjects to a nation of individuals with rights. They issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man, which proposed an extreme view of human freedom, and later passed the Constitution of 1791, turning France into a constitutional monarchy. The king had to share power with the National Assembly, but retained a veto power and could appoint his own ministers.
On July 14, an angry mob stormed the Bastille, a royal prison which was considered a symbol of the king's oppression, freeing all (wait for it) seven prisoners. On October 5, a mob of angry women marched to Versailles, beat up a number of the king's friends, and forced the royal family to return to Paris, where the people could keep them under surveillance. The National Assembly began to battle the king politically, protesting his ministerial appointments and becoming upset any time he used his veto. Fearing for their lives, in 1791 the royal family attempted to flee Paris and escape to Varennes, but they were captured and returned to the capital. In 1791, the National Assembly demanded a war with Austria, which they expected the king to veto, since his wife, Queen Marie-Antoinette, was the sister of the Austrian Emepror Joseph II. To their surprise, he approved, secretly hoping the Austrians would win and get him out of this mess.
Eugène Delacroix, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
An extremist faction of the National Assembly called the Jacobins began to push the revolution in a more radical direction. In 1792, the National Convention replaced the National Assembly, declared France a republic, abolished the monarchy, and executed King Louis. A few months later, Queen Marie-Antoinette was executed as well. Their 10-year-old son died in prison two years later. Off to such a great start, the new republic then went to war with Great Britain, the Netherlands, Austria and the rest of the Holy Roman Empire, Portugal, Naples, and Tuscany.
When the National Convention declared war on Austria, a patriotic song was written by Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle. It became very popular among volunteer soldiers from the French city of Marseille, and so became known as "La Marseillaise." The melody became as emblematic of the Revolution as the tricolor flag.It was evocative of French revolutionary spirit, with lyrics that make the American national anthem look like a nursery rhyme.
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Allons enfants de la Patrie, Le jour de gloire est arrivé! Contre nous de la tyrannie L'étendard sanglant est levé, Entendez-vous dans les campagnes Mugir ces féroces soldats? Ils viennent jusque dans vos bras Égorger vos fils, vos compagnes! Aux armes, citoyens, Formez vos bataillons, Marchons, marchons! Qu'un sang impur Abreuve nos sillons! |
Arise, children of the Fatherland, The day of glory has arrived! Against us, tyranny's Bloody standard is raised, Do you hear, in the countryside, The roar of those ferocious soldiers? They're coming right into your arms To cut the throats of your sons, your women! To arms, citizens, Form your battalions, Let's march, let's march! Let an impure blood Water our furrows! |
The National Convention was especially aggressive toward the Catholic Church. They confiscated all church property in France, dissolved all religious orders, declared all clergy employees of the state, and tried to have bishops elected instead of appointed by the Pope. All clergy were required to swear a loyalty oath to the state. Many churches had all their religious imagery destroyed and were converted into "Temples of Reason." They even went so far as to rewrite the entire calendar, renaming all the months and declaring 1789 as Year 1. Priests and common people alike who protested this were guillotined or worse. This eventually led to widespread disillusionment with the Revolution and a full scale revolt in the Vendée region.
Georg Heinrich Sieveking, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
The Jacobins soon split into rival factions. The Girondins, who began to sit on the right side of the National Convention, started to resist the increasing extremism and violence of the revolution. The Montagnards, who sat on the left, led by Maximilien Robespierre, believed the revolution had barely begun. Robespierre's faction purged the Girondins from the National Convention, executing their leaders and launching what he called the "Reign of Virtue," which championed Jean-Jacques Rousseau's notion of the common good. In practice, this meant the "Reign of Terror:" over the next year, the Montagnard government killed over 40,000 people. Anyone considered an enemy of the republic, i.e. anyone who disagreed with Robespierre, was executed. The Montagnard government crushed the revolution in the Vendée region, killing over 150,000 people. From his position at the head of the Committee of Public Safety, Robespierre consolidated all political power and silenced all opposition.
Eventually, enough opposition was created that Robespierre himself was guillotined in 1794. In 1795, the government was restructured under a five-person executive committee called the Directory. A coup in 1797 outsted the more conservative members, and the Directory itself began to enforce radical and oppressive policies.
Meanwhile, France was still at war with the rest of Europe, and one of the Republic's generals had been winning some spectacular victories.